Postcolonial Criticism Has Embraced Cultural Studies Essay

Postcolonial Criticism Has Embraced Cultural Studies Essay After the end of World War II, there occurred a large-scale process of decolonization of the territories subjugated by most of the imperial powers (Britain, France, the Netherlands, Belgium). Postcolonial literature and criticism arose both during and after the struggles of many nations in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and elsewhere for independence from colonial rule. The 1950s and 1960s saw the publication of seminal texts of postcolonialism: Aimà © Cà ©saires Discours sur le colonialisme, and Frantz Fanons Black Skin, White Masks. In 1958, Chinua Achebe published his novel Things Fall Apart. George Lammings The Pleasures of Exile appeared in 1960 and Fanons The Wretched of the Earth followed in 1961. In his book Postclonialism: A Very Short Introduction, Robert Young regarded that the founding moment of postcolonial theory was the journal the Tricontinental, which initiated the first global alliance of the peoples of the three continents against imperialism (Young 16-17). E. ii. Main aims of the theory Postcolonial criticism has embraced a number of aims: most fundamentally, to re-examine the history of colonialism from the perspective of the colonized; to determine the economic, political, and cultural impact of colonialism on both the colonized peoples and the colonizing powers; to analyze the process of decolonization; and above all, the contestation of forms of hegemony, and the articulation of political and cultural identities (Young, White Mythologies, 11). Early voices of anti-imperialism stressed the need to develop or return to indigenous literary traditions so as to restore their cultural heritage eclipsed by the imperial domination  [1]  . Other prominent voices, such as Said and Spivak, have advocated a deconstructive critique of Western discursive formation of knowledge in order to attain their own political and Acultural ends. However, recent voices, led by Homi Bhabha, have embraced the notion of hybridity as a space of cultural articulation and negotiation. E. iii. Scope and projects The scope of postcolonial discourse extends over the domains of gender, race, ethnicity, and class. Indeed, it might be an oversimplification to treat either the colonizer or the colonized as homogeneous entities, which can somehow be mutually opposed. Such a rigid division undermines the fact that both class exploitation and gender oppression function in both the West and in colonized nations (Young 8-9). Hence, postcolonial discourse has been associated with ethnic studies of various minorities in Western societies such as African-American, Native American, Latin American, and womens studies. All of these discourses have challenged the main streams of Western philosophy, literature, and ideology. In this respect, it has become a common project to question and revaluate the literary and cultural canon in Western institutions. The 1960s saw left-wing uprisings against the elements of liberal humanism: Western democracy, the Enlightenment rationalism, objectivity, and individual auton omy. This reaction against the Western mainstream tradition was fostered largely by the emergence of French literary theory, which insisted that the text was an indirect expression and often a justification of the prevailing power structure. This structure was inevitably a hierarchy in which the voices of minorities, women, and the working classes were suppressed. In fact, the appeal to timeless truths in the Western literature, which is presumably claimed as universal in its scope and purpose, has always transcended historical, economic, and political contexts. Such claim reveals the extent to which Eurocentric representations of the Self, resting on the Enlightenment project of rationality, progress, civilization, and moral agency, were constructed on a binary opposition to various forms of Otherness, which are founded on polarized images such as superstition, backwardness, barbarism, and moral incapacity. E. iv. Recent developments in the postcolonial theory Saids landmark work Orientalism appeared in 1978. More recent works include The Empire Writes Back (1989) by Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin and Gayatri Spivaks The Post-Colonial Critic (1990), as well as work by Abdul JanMohamed, Benita Parry and most importantly Homi Bhabhas The Location of Culture (1994). In his book White Mythologies, Robert Young sees postcolonialism as continuing to derive its inspiration from the anti-colonial struggles of the colonial era. Anti-colonialism had many of the characteristics commonly associated with postcolonialism such as diaspora, transnational migration and transcultural identities. Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin also use the term postcolonialism in a comprehensive sense to cover all the history impacted by imperialism from the moment of colonization to the present day, which is a form of continuity between the colonial and postcolonial periods. Most of the exponents of postcolonialism have regarded the trio: Said, Spivak and Bhabha, as the most influential theorists of what has become known as postcolonialism  [2]  . Their works have largely been at the center of various contemporary postcolonial debates. Saids Orientalism is generally regarded as having inaugurated the field of explicitly postcolonial criticism in the West. He argues that the Western representation of the Orient was produced by the imaginative geography of Western scholarship and has been instrumental in the colonization and domination of non-Western societies. Postcolonial theory reverses the historical center/margin direction of cultural studies. Critiques of the metropolis and capital now emanate from the former colonies. Moreover, Homi K. Bhabha has questioned the binary thought that produces the dichotomies-center/margin, white/black, and colonizer/colonized-by which colonial practices are justified. The work of Gayatri C. Spivak has focused atten tion on the question of who speaks for the colonial Other and the relation of the ownership of discourse and representation to the development of the postcolonial subjectivity. Nowadays, postcolonialism offers a fundamental critique of the ideology of colonial domination and at the same time seeks to subvert the essentialist thought that produced conceptual as well as economic divides between West and East, civilized and uncivilized, First and Third Worlds. In this respect, postcolonial theory has brought fresh perspectives to the role of colonized peoples- their wealth, labor, and culture- in the development of modern European nation states. While postcolonial criticism emerged in the historical moment following the collapse of the modern colonial empires, the increasing globalization of culture, including the imperialism of multinational capitalism, suggests a continued relevance for this field of study. E. v. Delimitation of postcolonial theory Postcolonial theory, as any other theoretical approach, has conceptual boundaries and limitations. Although it offers a theoretical approach that highlights the importance of examining the present colonial legacies, most of the early literature in postcolonial theory has emerged from the decolonized world of the twentieth century that theorizes mostly from the British imperial discourse. Thus, for the most part, it has not only overlooked the (post)colonial texts written in native languages, but also created a kind of postcolonial canon that has so far reinforced and maintained the supremacy of the colonizers language that has served as a tool for colonialism and imperialism. According to Wail Hassan and Rebecca Saunders, Anglophone postcolonial studies have sustained British literature as a frame of reference (18). Therefore, only Commonwealth Anglophone writers are introduced to English departments, while writers who write in their native languages are neglected. As a result, Anglo phone postcolonial literature is a highly selective field [] [that consolidates] the argument that Anglophone postcolonialism has become a mimic canon that functions effectively to reinforce neocolonial hegemony (Hassan and Saunders 18). Nevertheless, the use of english  [3]  as the language of expression makes the postcolonial works available to a wider audience and, thus, gives voice to ex-colonial subjects (Subaltern/Other) to speak for themselves and restitute the agency of self-representation. According to Ashcroft, through using E/english, colonized people have subverted the tropes by which they have habitually been marginalized, and, ultimately, have permanently influenced even the educational disciplines by which those tropes were perpetuated (Ashcroft, On Postcolonial Futures, 2).

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism Essay

The Chinese are the among the cultures to whose lives and philosophies are greatly influenced by their religion – Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. These three school of thoughts basically deal as to how the Chinese live in harmony, not only among themselves but with nature as well. Among the three schools of thought, Buddhism is the only one which did not originate in China. Hence, it differs with Confucianism and Taoism in as much as it deals with the human being alone and his suffering. Nonetheless, although it is different from Confucianism and Taoism, it is admittedly not in conflict with these two but rather it reinforces the concepts and tenets of the two schools of thought. Buddhism primarily believes in reincarnation (nirvana) and affirms the fact that life is â€Å"suffering† and that â€Å"desire and craving† are the causes of suffering. In order to attain happiness, one has to overcome his cravings and desires, hatred and complaints. Although Buddhism was not originally from China, it has nonetheless gained widespread popularity over the centuries. At the start, Buddhism and the Chinese native religions vastly varied. Buddhism reinforced reincarnation while the native Chinese believed in single life only. Secondly, Buddhism insists that in order to achieve the state of Nirvana, one has to give up or leave society and enter the celibate and homeless life of a monk or nun while the Chinese placed great emphasis on the family and its continuance of descendants. Furthermore, Buddhism does not believe in the existence of the soul compared to the native Chinese who believe in earthly and heavenly souls and lastly, while Buddhism reiterates the independence of the monastic community, native Chinese religions insist that all institutions whether religious or secular are under the government. Eventually though, Buddhism adjusted to Chinese society and vice versa. Hence, the Chinese came to believe in reincarnation and believed that their deceased relatives became ancestors. Because Buddhism propagated the belief of reincarnation and the Chinese came to believe in it, it was able to bring together the development of a series of ideas regarding heaven and eternal happiness and that they could be reborn into different levels. Hence, modern Chinese society used Buddhist temples as the centrepiece of worship and study. It also made Buddhists the key players in funerals by taking over the burial and remembrance of the deceased. Wealthy and affluent Chinese make sure to have Buddhist monks during funerals because their presence more or less became an assurance of a good rebirth. Moreover, a deceased’s name place in a spirit plaque inside the temple meant that he or she is part of the daily Buddhist prayer. Gleaning from the history of Buddhism, the religion took different paths. Originally, it was an individualistic religion wherein one is responsible for his own progress in the path to nirvana. Thus, it entails that the believer has to enter the monastery and become a monk, with the aim of abandoning their desires. This is done by not doing any work and was only supported through begging and donations from the community. But the Chinese found this path to be very difficult and soon â€Å"easier paths† took form. The Chinese are known for their excellent health and long life. This is also attributed to Buddhism. With the separation from the original form of Buddhism came the Tantric form of Buddhism which stresses the total involvement of the body, mind and speech in the search for enlightenment and nirvana. As the doctrine of the karma took hold and fabricated itself into Chinese society, out came new types of behaviour that can be attributed to the Buddhists. The Chinese began to practice seated meditation and make offerings to images. They also adapted the Buddhist rites of confession and consecration. While Buddhism mainly seeks to promote the belief of reincarnation and karma, it was also able to alter the world of the Chinese in terms of materials by introducing new objects, symbols and rituals. The practice of making donations to the Buddhist monks in order to ensure their good rebirth also became adapted. Hence, inspite of its belief that in order to achieve Nirvana, one has to abandon all worldly and material things, Buddhism today especially in Chinese society encourages donations even at such huge amounts to the extent that the donor fails no reluctance for giving such to a supposedly celibate and austere community all for the sake of ensuring good karma and Nirvana. There is one basis for this practice: the monks relied mainly on the donations of the community. Aside from donating for the monks’ clothing and food, donors are also encouraged to make material offerings to Buddha such as gold, topaz, silver and crystal. Devotees are also encouraged to make images of the Buddha. While the Chinese are known for their frugality, they nonetheless place great importance in the splendour of Buddhist practices and images or objects. As can be seen, the Chinese value images of the Buddha that are made of precious stones and metals. Unlike Christians who use wood or clays for their images and icons, Chinese Buddhists believe that Buddhist deities must be given such images as their expression of respect. In summary, although Buddhism maintained the belief and practice of austerity and celibacy in order to attain eternal happiness and enlightenment, Chinese society in practice contradicts the tenets of Buddhism. This may be attributed to the fact that Buddhism adapted the culture of the Chinese instead of the other way around. Therefore, even though monks promoted and practiced austerity, they nonetheless encouraged their believers to give material wealth to the monastic community as security for their â€Å"rebirth†.

Environmental issues Essay

It was not yet realized by the public the seriousness of the environmental problems we face if not for the issue on global warming. Dozens of organizations, many of them with international memberships, are now working on everything from saving wildlife to developing new sources of energy. But pollution, energy consumption and economic growth are independent problems. Effective programs for dealing with one of them often aggravate the others. For example, devices that clean automobile exhaust and reduce air pollution also decreases fuel economy, thereby using up our limited reserves more rapidly. Similarly, banning the burning of household trash reduces air pollution but increases environmental pollution, as land, animals and scenery are sacrificed for strip mines and oil wells, and the wastes produced by the fuel are dumped into the environment. On the other hand, ignoring the need for more energy retards the economy, thereby increasing unemployment and possibly reducing food product ion. Nature is fighting back against the abuses we have inflicted upon it! Due to human carelessness that damaged the environment, many communities are now suffering from environmental crises. The air that you breathe contains gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide in certain amounts. But many people live in areas where the air contains pollutants that are harmful to their health. Air pollution is a common problem in congested and urban areas (The Washington Times 2006, p.26). Food, air and water needed for life’s processes which the environment provides unfortunately contain harmful substances called pollutants. The presence of air, water and soil in the environment is of waste materials or pollutants which the environment cannot handle, degrade, disperse or diffuse so that it becomes unclean and unhealthy is called pollution (Colla 2002, p.125). Â  There are four general types of pollution, namely: 1. Air Pollution – It is an undesirable change in the physical and chemical characteristics of air. Industrial plants, motor vehicles, indiscriminate throwing and burning of refuse everywhere make the air polluted. Cigarette smoking contributes to air pollution, most especially in enclosed places. Foul smell from waste and methane gas emitted through the combustion of refuse contributes to the problem of air pollution (Kemp1994, p.23). Prolonged exposure to air pollution may cause/aggravate respiratory and other diseases as well as irritation of the eyes, nose and throat. 2. Water Pollution – this results when water contains more harmful substances such as harmful bacteria and poisonous chemicals, than it can naturally get rid of. The dumping of domestic and industrial wastes into the rivers, canals, and other water bodies causes pollutants to be introduced into waterways. Frequent flooding which carry topsoil and sewage into the water supplies pollute the water, too. Sugar mills, distillers and mining firms without proper waste disposal systems are among the principal polluters of the nation’s waterways. Soap and water detergents produce enormous persistent layers of suds on the surface of receding waters. Substances such as harmful bacteria and poisonous chemicals are likely to cause gastro-intestinal diseases, cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, infectious hepatitis, food poisoning and even death. Mercury in sea water is absorbed by tiny plants that provide food for small fish, which is eaten by a larger fish. When they are eaten by men, mercury is deposited in the kidneys and brain which may cause death when accumulated (Kemp 1994, p.23). 3. Land Pollution – This takes place when harmful substances are introduced into the soil making it unable to sustain plant life. Dumping areas are breeding places of disease carriers such as flies, rodents, mosquitoes and cockroaches. Uses of excessive amounts of fertilizer, pesticides and other toxic chemicals can destroy the ability of the soil to self-generate. They deplete the nutrients, harden the texture, and increase toxicity, making the soil less productive. Other causes of land pollution are atomic fallouts and mine tailings which poison agricultural lands. Toxic residues from the accumulation of chemicals in the land can cause cancer and other diseases (Kemp 1994, p.24). 4. Noise Pollution (Persistent noise) – This refers to the presence of too loud, too sudden or very unpleasant sound that becomes an assault to the body causing mental or physical harm. The roaring of motor vehicles, grating sound of jackhammer, squeaking of tires, screeching brakes, blaring television sets, radios and stereos and even loud shouting are some types of dangerous noises when one is continuously exposed to them. Noise pollution affects not only the ears but also directly or indirectly impairs the mind and the whole body. Directly, it can cause deafness; indirectly, it may lead to increased heart beat and high blood pressure that eventually cause cardiovascular disease (Kemp 1994, p.24). Most pollution is caused by man, pollutants will increase as population grows, and hence, minimizing the production of pollutants and managing its proper disposal must be the goal of every human being. But the air pollution must be given extra attention by the government, society and each individual to protect people from this environmental danger, not only for ourselves but for future generations. Air Pollution, Environmental Hazard There are five basic pollutants of air are carbon monoxide, sulfur oxide, hydrocarbons (organic compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon) and small particles that float in the air (Jordan 2005, p.12-20). Sources of Air Pollution 1. Automobile exhausts The poisonous carbon monoxide in the air comes from automobiles. Nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons are also produced as by-products of engine combustion. The more vehicles there are on the road, the greater is the possibility of pollution. Unleaded gasoline and some anti-pollution automobile parts cut down the amount of pollutants in the air. But transportation vehicles are still a major cause of air pollution. 2. Industry Industries are responsible for the second largest amount of pollution in the air, next only to vehicles. Fuels that are used in some industries may give off large amounts of sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxide and harmful particles of dust and ash. Sulfur oxide is made when fuels containing sulfur like coal are burned. Certain industrial processes may give off more of one pollutant than another. This depends on the kind of fuel used and the product that is being made. 3. Individuals People pollute the air in many ways. Each time a person smokes a cigar/cigarette, the air is being polluted when he burns trash, air pollution is increased. More pollution is added when he uses wood for cooking or to keep warm during the cold months or cool during the hot months. Effects of Air Pollution 1. Respiratory disorders If you have breathed polluted air, the eyes may water, the nose may run and a cough may develop. Serious illnesses are likely to happen to people long exposed to polluted air. Chronic bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer are common in air polluted areas. Cigarette smoking is closely related to the development of long cancer. Heart diseases, especially heart attacks occur more in places where there is a high level of carbon monoxide in the air. 1. Accidents Vehicle accidents happen more often in places where air is polluted. These accidents may be caused by poor visibility in the polluted air. Or they may be caused by increased exposure to carbon monoxide. People with watery eyes, headaches and breathing problems often find it hard to drive in air polluted areas. 2. High economic cost The government may spend billions of pesos per year to control air pollution. However, little has been done by the government to control air pollution due to the struggling economy and the low economic growth. The United States spends around 4o billion dollars a year to control air pollution. The cost of air pollution is about 200 dollars per year for each person. Air pollution can also add to the rusting and corrosion of vehicles and machinery. Even farm crops may be harmed or stunted in growth by air pollution. There is a way out of this trap. In a word, it is sacrifice. The fact that there is no way both to clean up the environment and conserve natural resources without changing the life-style of people in the industrialized nations. The challenge is that of motivating people to make the necessary changes now, before a worldwide disaster forces much more difficult adjustments upon us. Preventing of Air Pollution Everyone needs to care more about the problem of air pollution. Car exhausts and air conditioning systems can be checked at regular times and kept in good working condition. Air conditioners, if not working properly, may give off harmful hydrocarbons. Vehicles should not be allowed to idle for more than a few minutes because idling lets carbon monoxide escape in the sir. Use of public transportation would also lower the number of vehicles on the road and in return would also lower air pollution. Strict laws on transportation and industry must be enforced. Instead of burning trash, it should be allowed to decompose in pits. The decomposed materials can be utilized as fertilizer for plants and at the same time minimizes smoke in the air. Stricter laws on cigarette smoking should also be enforced. The end result of this is lesser lung and heart ailments and cleaner atmosphere (Cline 1992, p.35-37). Political Action The real problem comes from the wealth the power of the opponents of environmental protection. On the local level, environmentalist face rich land developers who can make large campaign contributions to the politicians who decide what land may or may not be developed. At higher levels of government, environmentalists face even more powerful foes: multinational corporations that stand to make big profits from despoiling the environment. Included here are some of the most powerful corporations in the world, such as petroleum and mineral companies that want to sink wells and mines in fragile wilderness areas, the manufacturers that spew pollutants into the air and water, and the firms that sell products such as polluting automobiles and unsafe pesticides. Such corporations have spent hundreds of million dollars to persuade the government not to outlaw their destructive activities (Diehl, p.20-21). The environmentalists and the concerned public simply do not have that kind of money. If we are to preserve the natural environment for ourselves and the generations to come, two things must be done. First, a stronger educational campaign must be launched to make more people aware of environmental problems. Second, more ordinary citizens must join together and become involved in the political action necessary to strengthen anti-pollution laws, increase the enforcement effort, and protect our natural resources. Conserving Resources There is no doubt that our existing resources can be used far more efficiently. It is possible for a large-scale, multiple-stage recycling program to be introduced in imitation of natural ecosystems. To take a simple example, garbage could be used as fuel to run the mills to make recycled paper, the wastes from which could be burned as fuel. Similarly, it is possible that community water districts will some day become closed systems, meaning that the water would be used again and again, never being discharged into an ocean or river. Some factories already have such closed systems (Sarewitz 2000, p.55). It is possible to envision larger closed systems designed so that no industrial material would ever be discarded as either waste or pollution. Energy conservation can also stretch our natural resources. Insulating homes, driving smaller cars at slower speeds, riding trains and buses instead of driving cars, recycling the heat used in factories, and restricting the manufacture of energy-wasting gadgets are obvious ways of eliminating waste. The immediate task is not to develop technologies that are more energy sufficient; the challenge is to find ways or persuading people to use the conservation measures that are already available. Better Technology A growing number of scientists and concerned citizens are coming to see solar system as the best answer to the world’s energy problems. Solar power units use the endless supply of energy from the sun, are nonpolluting, and pose no threat of radiation or explosion. Other promising approaches use specially prepared ponds of water to trap solar energy or mirrors to concentrate it on a single location, where it can be used to generate electrical power (Tennesen 2004, p.85). Limiting Growth Technological solutions are attractive, but it is doubtful that they alone can resolve the environmental crisis. It is often argued that industrial growth is necessary to create new jobs for a growing population. The argument that economic growth is necessary to eliminate poverty and create a more egalitarian society is also misleading. Despite decades of rapid economic growth, the industrialized nations continue to show enormous inequalities of wealth and power (1991, p.12). Conclusion The environmental crisis does not mean everyone should return to hunting and gathering; the world’s current population is too large to even consider such an idea. Keeping a clean environment is the responsibility of the government, society and each individual. Today, air pollution must be given extra attention to protect people from this environmental danger. All of us must have aknowledge of this environmental menace. The young generations today, like us, crave for the total preservation of our natural resources, earnestly begging to put an end to wastage and preserve the natural wealth intended by our Mother Earth for the future. Yes, there is still gleaming hope to save our Mother Earth from total destruction. There is still a chance to regain the lost paradise we unscrupulously abused. We must do our part to make this world a safer place to live in, not just for ourselves and our neighbors but our future generations. The will to dynamic implementation to this urgent call lies in your strong and sustainable support, giving once more Mother Earth a chance to care for our lives now and in the future generations.

Impact of Taylor and Ford on Organizations Today - 1747 Words

Impact of Taylor and Ford on Organizations Today Scientific management is a well known approach towards management and it can be traced back to the work of Fredrick Taylor and Henry Ford. Taylor believed that similar to the way that there is best machine to each job, so there is the best method that people should undertake their jobs. Fordism which picked up the name of its pioneer, Ford, involved mass consumption which is combined with mass production to produce widespread material advancement and sustained economic growth (Daft and Marcic, 2010). The paper elaborates the impacts of the scientific approach to management in today’s organizations and also to the employee with respect to Taylor’s and Ford’s influence. This approach has been†¦show more content†¦This approach, though, neglected the human element, so that in effect the work process was converted from worker machine relationship to two machines relationship (Cobley, 2009:53). As per Pacharapha (2012), theorists of scientific management assumed that employees desired to work with minimum effort while receiving more money. Also took for granted submission expected from workers to physical movement standards and processes thought. They did not consider how workers felt and what was likely to motivate them, leaving a high degree of dissatisfaction of the job among the workers. General Motors happened to be the first company that was forced into recognition of United Auto Workers (UAW) union after a sit down strike closed its plants in Flint, Michigan 1937. Workers won more wages and benefits after a series of more battles. On the other Hand, consider the proof of New United Motor Manufacturing Inc., in Fremont. Paul Adler had to say that it had succeeded in employment of Taylor’s time-and-motion study on the factory creating first class quality productivity and at the same time increasing worker satisfaction and motivation. Taylorist procedures promoted learning in the organisation leading to steady improvement (Down, 2012). Carlton-Ford (2010:214), explains that waging systems that were non-incentiveShow MoreRelatedThe Need for An Adequate Evaluation of Organization Behavior 1596 Words   |  7 PagesAs organizations truly affect almost every aspect of our daily lives, it is vital for us to understand the what, how and why of organizations (Buchanan Huczynski, 2010) . That is why an adequate evaluation of organizational behaviour is needed. This essay is going to analyse the application of a critical model of thinking to studying organizational behaviour. It is going to do so by first setting clear definitions of key terms, describing generally Taylorism, Fordism and Post-Fordism and then proceedingRead MorePrinciples of Scientific Management1149 Words   |  5 Pagesprocesses and to management. Its development began with Frederick Winslow Taylor in the 1880s and 1890s within the manufacturing industries. 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